Adam Powell free essay sample

One of the most powerful and influential civil rights leaders in American history, Adam Clayton Powell was one of the pioneering men ever to be advocates of African-American rights in the 20th century. He was also a Baptist minister and the first African-American Congressman from New York (Haskins 1974, 24). Powell was born Adam Clayton Powell Jr. on the 29th of November 1908 in New Haven Connecticut to Adam Sr. who was a Baptist minister and real estate businessman (Ragsdale and Treese 1996, 113) . When Powell was only 15 years old, he enlisted and joined the African Nationalist Power Movement of the then-famous African American rights leader, Marcus Garvey. In 1926, the younger Powell commenced his tertiary studies at Colgate University where he earned his A.B. in 1930 and a year later he earned his M.A. at Columbia University, in religious education. With regards to Powell’s ministerial career, he was named successor of Adam Powell Sr. We will write a custom essay sample on Adam Powell or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page as the senior pastor of Harlem’s Abyssinian Baptist Church. But even before his appointment, Powell, thereafter graduating from Colgate, had initiated the fight for civil rights equality, as he had precipitated the fight of African Americans during the Depression, fighting for the equality in jobs, decent housing and racial discrimination and segregation; his stand was seemingly aggravated because at that time, the Great Depression was at its pinnacle. One among his famous fights was against the refusal of commercial giants like Bell Telephone to hire African-American employees. Powell initiated mass meetings, rent strikes, boycotts of public transportation, to further forward the grievances of the African American community regarding mistreatment and prejudice and to urge the hiring of African Americans in transit companies. At the worst, Powell criticized the administration for its difference concerning civil rights (Luker et al. 1993, 423). His cause was only bolstered by his election to the New York City Council in 1941 (Zelizer 2004, 563), where he resumed his fight to provide fellow African-Americans with decent living and fend off destituteness. The latter malady was he was the staunchest adversary of, for the well-known soup kitchen in Harlem was the epitome of his concern; it helped cloth thousands of impoverished Harlem blacks (Wintz and Finkelman 2004, 991). The almost holy presence of Adam Clayton Powell in the lives of unfortunate was somewhat cemented when he was elected into Congress, the first African American to do so since William Dawson represented Chicago. Even when Powell was already Congressman he was not immune from racism even in Congress, as he was treated as if he were not a man of position who commanded respect and courtesy. Powell was astounded but provoked when he was initially prohibited to use public amenities in the House of Representatives. During the course of his Congressional term, Powell frequently challenged Southern advocates of racial segregation to debates. In the facet of segregation, Powell toiled for the abolition of it in the United States Military. Moreover, he initiated moves to convince the senate to outlaw Jim Crow laws within American jurisdiction. Later in his public service career and after nearly two decades in Congress, Powell was again doing the American people a service as he was named the chair of the Education and Labor Committee (Ragsdale and Tresse 1996, 115). While in office, he pushed for the increases of the minimum wage, special education for the physically handicapped as well as the improvement of the quality of primary and secondary education. As the 1960’s inched, Powell was instrumental in the implementation of social programs for the disadvantaged of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, the â€Å"New Frontier† and the â€Å"Great Society†, respectively.   But on a large scale, the â€Å"Powell Amendment† was by far his most important contribution, as it called for the stop of the flow of federal funds to organizations practicing racial discrimination. Summing up the great life his great life, Powell merely wanted African Americans to be reborn (Powell 1945, 57).

Emotion and Thomas G. Plummer Essay Example

Emotion and Thomas G. Plummer Essay Example Emotion and Thomas G. Plummer Essay Emotion and Thomas G. Plummer Essay Cheyenne Pruett Ms. Mitchell College Composition October 8, 2013 Ophelia? Thomas G. Plummer, in his essay Diagnosing and Treating the Ophelia Syndrome argues that the system we use for teaching today takes away students ability to think for themselves. Plummer proves his argument with loads of examples of students conforming to others to take the easy way out. In Plummers essay he points out ways to treat this syndrome and stop all ignorant people from ruining the minds of other students. Plummers purpose is to point out the issue that society is molding into uneducated individuals. Plummer writes in a formal tone for his target audience. Plummer appeals to pathos when he adds the quote about people not knowing how to answer simple questions such as How are you? How do you feel? because we are too busy Feeling what we are supposed to feel. He also strikes an emotional cord when he introduces the Treatments. The treatments in and of themselves are appealing to pathos because they all stimulate some kind of emotional response. Treatment 2 is all about trusting yourself. Later on in the discussing the treatments Plummer talks about how every throught he has are his thoughts. He says to follow your intuition. Just be you. Treatment three also has a lot of pathos. It is all about being okay with not knowing. He puts it into deep words when he says surrender the need for absolute truth. Plummer also uses formal diction to get his point across and to also help achieve the objective to make his argument stronger. In using words such as pontificates and clamors, he is making it clear who his target audience is. Even Just adding the treatments can be considered formal diction. The treatments are his way of showing/ telling the audience that something can be done to reverse the effects of Ophelia Syndrome. Other formal words such as morality and counterargument can be found throughout the essay. The word choice in the essay helps provide us with a clear example of who should be reading the essay. In using formal diction he is establish his credibility. Plummer also establishes credibility/ appeals to ethos when he talks about psychologist Carl Jung on the first page of his essay. Adding other insight can help the audience show that the author, Plummer in this case, did his research and knows about the topic he is writing about. Another appeal to ethos Plummer makes is on sixth page under treatment 4, when he adds Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg defines morality as the ability to see as issue from points of view ther than Just your own. Plummer later on goes on to explain a personal experience with treatment 6 which is step out of bounds, when he explains he dutifully carried prepared tests to his class. There was a student Holly who practiced Plumbers treatment when he walked through the door and she looked him because it is a personal experience. Plummer had a number of things he used to get his point across. He used all of his appeals and great diction as well as others to m ake sure his target audience was right on with him. He kept the essay flowing and easy.

Practical Risk Management with in Information Technology Project Research Paper

Practical Risk Management with in Information Technology Project Management - Research Paper Example In order to control and manage risk, method and techniques are defined briefly in this article. The definition of Project Management as per the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Guide is â€Å"a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result and the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements.†(Monoharan & Mansor, 2012). There are nine sub categories in project management out of which four are considered as the most important areas. The remaining four is assisting area and one is a general area. These areas are divided as: Scope management: management of work in order to complete the project. Time management: management of time needed to accomplish task on time. Cost management: management of budget regarding cost effective project. Quality management: All the requirements are satisfied and implied. Human resource management: management of employers for their effectiven ess. Communications management: gathering information regarding project. Risk management: recognizing and answering to risks. Procurement management: outsourcing goods and services. Integration management: interlinks all project knowledge areas instantaneously. In order to lead a fruitful project, the Project managers need to shine in each of these nine areas. 2 The Project Management Process Project managers manages the project in a systematic way or method, however, various project management techniques are available that can be used. Likewise, activities that are included in the PMBOK for the definition of the project are â€Å"components of work performed during the course of a project† (Vida, 2012). The primary activities of the project management process are mentioned in the book called as Whitten & Bentley’s Systems Analysis and Design Methods. The book demonstrated negotiation of the scope, identification of tasks, estimation of durations of the tasks, specific ation of dependencies, managing the efforts of the team, resource assignment, controlling the project progress, monitoring the project progress and lastly, assessment of the project results and experience. Scope negotiation is a critical part of any project that needs management. Likewise, the scope of the project is associated with the working that is required to deliver the product or end result with the requirements of the customer. Project failure occurs due to creeping of the scope that transpires in case of some addition of features and functions regardless of the factor that impacts the end result of the project. Moreover, failure of the projects also occurs due to ambiguous or confusing requirements of the customer. If the scope of the project is not clearly defined, there is a high percentage that the outcome of the project will not satisfy project stakeholders as well as the customers. 3 The Importance of Project Risk Management Information Technology Project Management is a methodology or set of technique that is implemented for identification, analysis and countering risks throughout the project lifecycle and supporting every aspect of meeting the requirements and objectives of the project (Schwalbe, 2010). Moreover, Oracle White Paper pressures over the significance of project risk management and states that, â€Å"Projects are becoming increasingly more complex and costly,

LEGAL TECHNOLOGY ISSUES Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 16250 words

LEGAL TECHNOLOGY ISSUES - Dissertation Example v City and Hackney HA [1997] 4 All ER 771 British Chiropractic Association (BCA) v Singh [2010] EWCA Civ. 350 Director of Public Prosecution v David Lennon [2006] EWHC 1201 Ellis v DPP [2001] EWHC Admin Gregg v Scott [2005] 2 AC 176 Hubbard v Vosper [1999] 1 W.L.R. 605 Loveday v Renton (No 2) [1992] 3 All ER 184. 15 [1995] 2 All ER 155. 16 Mahfouz & Ors v Ehrenfeld & Anor [2005] EWHC 1156 (QB) Pro Sieben Media AG v Carlton UK Televisions Ltd [1999] 1 W.L.R. 605 R v George F Cole & Stanislaw Frankowski R v Cambridge Health Authority ex p [1995] 6 MLR 250 R v Bedworth, Unreported - 18 March 1993 R v Cropp [1991] 7 CLSR 168 R v Delamare (Ian) [2003] EWCA R v Gold & Schifreen [1987] 1 QB 1116 (CA), aff'd [1988] AC 1063 (HL) 26 R v Vallor (2004) 1 Cr App R (S) 54 Re B [2002] 2 Re ML (Use of Skype Technology) [2013] EWHC 2091 (Fam) Sayre v Moore (1795) 1 East's 361 Bibliography - Books - Andrew Murray, Information Technology Law: The Law and the Society (Oxford University Press 2010) Avery G, Law and Ethics in Nursing and Healthcare (Sage 2012) Bently L, Suthersaenen U & Torremans P, Global Copyright: Three Hundred Years since the Statute of Anne (Edward Elgard Publishing 2010) BMA Medical Ethics Department, Everyday Medical Ethics and Law (John Wiley & Sons 2013) Brayne H & Carr H, Law for Social Workers (Oxford University Press 2012) Bureau of National Affairs, The United States Patents Quarterly (The University of California, 2011) Burton F, Family Law (Routledge 2012) Clough J, Principles of Cybercrime (Cambridge University Press 2010) Cole G F & Frankowski S, Abortion and Protection of the Human Fetus (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1987) Colston C & Galloway J, Modern Intellectual Property Law (Third edition, Routledge 2010) Cretney S M, Family Law in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press 2003) Deazley R, Rethinking Copyright: History, Theory and Language (Edward Elgard Publishing 2006) Dr. K.Jaishankar and Halder, D, Cyber Crime and the Victimisation of Women: Laws, Rights and Regulations (Idea Group Incorporation 2011) Dr Lily Srivastava, Law and Medicine (First edition, Universal Law of Publishing 2010) Duguenoy P, Jones S& Blundell B G, Ethical, Legal and Professional Issues in Computing (Cengage Learning EMEA 2008) Fadia A, An Unofficial Guide to Ethical Hacking (Second edition, Macmillan 2006) Fafinski S, Computer Misuse: Response, Regulation and the Law (Routledge 2013) Ghosh S & Tumini, E, Cybercrimes: A Multidisciplinary Analysis (Springer 2010) Gillies A, The Clinicians Guide to Surviving IT (Radcliffe Publishing 2006) Hare, I & Weinstein J, Extreme Speech and Democracy (Oxford University Press 2010) Harley D, Slade R & Gattiker U E., Computer Viruses Revealed (10th Edition, Dreamtech Press 2002) Helen C, Jennifer & Dawn (2008) New Perspectives on Bullying (Open University Press 2008) Jones R, Oxford Text Book of Primary Medical Care (Second edition, Oxford University Press 2005) Khan M & Robson M, Clinical Negligence (Cav endish Publishing 2001) Lloyd, I J., Information Technology Law (Oxford University Press 2011) Lloyd, L J, Introduction to Policing and Police Powers (Psychology Press 2005) Murray A, Information Technology Law (Oxford University Press 2013) O’Grady J, Dobbs-Smith I, Walsh L& Spencer M, Medicines, Medical Devises and the Law (Cambridge Univer

The Evidence For The Endosymbiotic Theory

The Evidence For The Endosymbiotic Theory Abstract Modern eukaryotic cells were originally believed to have arisen directly from a single prokaryotic ancestor through serial mutation and the process of genetic drift. However, much evidence has lead scientists to believe that eukaryotes are the result of a merger between a prokaryotic cell, a relative of modern ÃŽÂ ±-protebacteria, that became incorporated by a host archaeon. This is referred to as the endosymbiotic theory. Over the span of millions of years, symbiont DNA was transferred to the nucleus to give rise to the eukaryotic genome and the prokaryote gave rise to mitochondria. As such the two organisms effectively become a single organism, each unable to survive in the others absence. The endosymbiotic theory is widely regarded due to the many shared biochemical and morphological characteristics of mitochondria with bacteria, including DNA organization and similarities protein synthesising machinery and membrane composition. In reviewing these characteristics I have come to conclude that an endosymbiotic event is the most plausible explanation for the development of mitochondria within the eukaryotic cell, despite the uncertainties regarding the nature of the prokaryotes inclusion in the host cell. Introduction The term endosymbiosis refers to the event in which one organism takes up permanent residence within another, such that the two develop a mutually beneficial relationship1.The endosymbiotic theory was developed to explain the evolutionary discontinuity between the appearance of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and the great many differences exhibited by the two taxa, described in Table.1. Since mitochondria share so many biochemical and structural characteristics with Bacteria, an evolutionary relationship was proposed, in order to explain the transition from prokaryote to eukaryote2. Contrary to the traditional view that a series of chance mutations were responsible for the evolution of eukaryotic cells, the endosymbiotic theory states that mitochondria arose by the incorporation of a free living aerobic prokaryote, relating to an ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacterium, into an anaerobic proto-eukaryote3. This is proposed to have occurred approximately 1.5 billion years ago, between the first fossil r ecord of aerobic prokaryotes and eukaryotes (Table 1), after oxygen had begun to accumulate in Earths atmosphere as a result of the emergence of photosynthetic organisms4 5. Rather than being digested, the prokaryote remained as a symbiont, helping in the production of ATP within the host by the process of oxidative phosphorylation, enabling it to survive the increasing oxygen concentrations, thereby giving it a selective advantage over anaerobic cells. Interdependence between the aerobic bacterium and the host cell developed and, the bacterium evolved into the mitochondrion. Photosynthetic eukaryotes originated in a similar manner by a secondary symbiosis between these organisms and photoautotrophic bacteria related to cyanobacteria. Wallin proposed in 1923 that mitochondria originated from an endosymbiotic event when he observed that they closely resembled bacteria in size and complexity7. These and related observations led Lynn Margulis to publish Symbiosis in Cell Evolution in 1981, in which she argued that modern eukaryotes were originally formed from a fusion of separate species. Margulis also proposed, more controversially, that motile prokaryotic species such as Spirochaeta were incorporated and resulted in the evolution of the structures that provide cellular motion. Since this hypothesis is generally not accepted, it is not discussed in further detail here. 1. Over the next thirty years, further similarities between mitochondria and bacteria were found that supported Margulis work. Table 1 described some of the similarities observed between prokaryotic cells and mitochondria when compared to eukaryotic cells. Included are the overall physiological similarities of mitochondria and prokaryotes, such as the similarity in size compared to eukaryotes, similarities between the protein-synthesising machinery such as the mitochondrial ribosomes and tRNA molecules, and the presence of a separate mitochondrial genome.3 8 Table.1 Summary of the similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and eukaryotic organelles. Adapted from: Indiana University-Purdue University Department of Biology (2004) Class Notes: The Endosymbiotic Theory Available: http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/n100/2k4endosymb.html [Accessed 16/04/10] Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Mitochondria of Eukaryotic cells DNA 1 single, circular chromosome Multiple linear chromosomes compartmentalized in a nucleus 1 single, circular chromosome Replication Binary Fission involving Fts proteins Mitosis Process akin to binary Fission involving dynamin proteins Ribosomes 30S and 50S Subunits 40S and 60S Subunits 30S and 50S Subunits Electron Transport Chain Found in the plasma membrane around cell Found only in the cells mitochondria Found in the plasma membrane around mitochondrion Size (approximate) ~1-10 ÃŽÂ ¼m ~50 500 ÃŽÂ ¼m ~1-10 ÃŽÂ ¼m First appearance in fossil record Anaerobic bacteria: ~3.8 Billion years ago Aerobic bacteria: ~2.5 Billion years ago ~1.5 billion years ago ~1.5 billion years ago What the endosymbiotic hypothesis does not make clear is the order of events regarding the formation of the nucleus and the acquisition of the prokaryotic cell containing the precursor mitochondrial genome. Two hypotheses have been put forward for the formation of the eukaryotic cell, illustrated in Fig.2. Nucleus formation preceded symbiosis of mitochondrion and chloroplast Nucleus formed after symbiosis of mitochondrion and before chloroplast Taken from Michael Madigan et al. Brock Biology of Microorganisms (2008) 12th edition, Pearson Education Inc The most widely regarded, summarised in Fig.3, proposes that an ancestral prokaryote first developed a membrane around its DNA from infolding of the plasma, similar to the way in which the endomembranous system of the endoplasmic rectilium and Golgi apparatus is thought to have arisen3. This organism, dubbed the protoeukaryote engulfed a small heterotrophic prokaryote, shown on Fig.2 as the ancestor of mitochondrion9. Pearson Education Inc. http://topicstock.pantip.com/wahkor/topicstock/2009/09/X8338687/X8338687-8.jpg The second hypothesis, in contrast, considers that there could have been a nucleus was formed after the acquisition of the protomitochondrion, when a member of the Archaea acquired the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion through endocytosis11. This is known as the hydrogen hypothesis, proposed by Martin and Muller (1998), who claimed that the symbiotic relationship between the two cells was initially based on the hosts dependence on the hydrogen, evolved by the symbiont as a by-product of anaerobic respiration, as a source of energy. The nucleus was formed from the mitochondrial DNA from the symbiont and the free DNA residing in the nucleus12. Both models thus involve the transfer of a large portion of mitochondrial DNA to the host nucleus, resulting in the dependence of the symbiont upon the host. An alternative hypothesis has recently been forwarded by Davidov and Jurkevitch, who propose that the ancestors of mitochondria were not endocytosed by Archaea but were predators that penetrated the host and devoured the host. The prey managed to survive and established a mutualistic relationship as in the previous hypotheses. (Davidov, Jurkevitch cited by Zimmer, 2009) This appears to be supported by the finding that certain species Rickettsia, obligate intracellular parasites, have more similar genomes to the than mitochondrion13 14. However the eukaryotic cell arose, abundant evidence has accumulated that supports the endosymbiotic theory, and the evidence of similarities relating to different functions of bacteria and mitochondria are reviewed in this essay. There is also an increasing body of experimental evidence that suggests that endosymbiotic events occur in modern cells, and two such experiments and their implications on the endosymbiotic theory are reviewed here. Aside from these experiments, the evidence presented in this essay relates entirely to the emergence of mitochondria. The Mitochondrial Genome Mitochondria possess their own genomes that replicate that replicate independently from the nucleus, using DNA polymerases specific to the mitochondria. These processes, as well as the subsequent DNA transcription and protein synthesis take place in the matrix of mitochondria and occur throughout the cell cycle, which parallels the situation in bacteria but is not true of nuclear DNA2. The DNA of mitochondria is a single circular molecule of roughly the same size as the bacterial genome, and has a mean GC content ranging from 20-50%. This is close to the variation found in bacterial species and greater than observed for eukaryotes, reflecting phylogenetic relationships of mitochondria and bacteria2. Furthermore, like bacterial DNA, the DNA of mitochondria lacks both intervening sequences and the organisation into histones present in bacteria3. Comparative molecular sequencing of mitochondrial genes and the RNA they encode has revealed that the mitochondrial genome is more closely rel ated to that of organisms such as the ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacterium Rickettsia prowazekii than to the rest of the eukaryotic cell, indicating an extracellular origin10 15. Similar sequencing by Ito and Braithewaite has revealed that yeast mitochondrial DNA polymerase I is homologous in amino acid sequence the DNA polymerases, of E. coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae in both the 3-5 exonuclease and DNA polymerase domains. The similarity of the DNa replication machinery further implies that mitochondria evolved from prokaryotes. While nuclear DNA is contributed by both parents in sexual organisms, mtDNA is contributed almost entirely by the oocyte16. The symbiotic concept accounts for this non-mendelian mode of inheritance and indicates the evolutionary importance of maintaining uniparental heredity of nonchromosomal genes, due to the inherent redundancy that results from the fusion of gametes, This ensure that at least one copy of the organellar genome is maintained at each stage in the eukaryotic cells life cycle3. DNA sequence analysis has also demonstrated the presence of mitochondrial DNA in the nucleus17. Biologists originally believed that the nuclear DNA of the eukaryote coded for mitochondria. However, Margulis reasoned that, if the endosymbiotic hypothesis represents the true course of events in the evolution of mitochondria, then upon entering a symbiotic partnership, the symbionts would lose all synthetic capabilities except the ability to replicate their own DNA. It has been shown that that the proteins that mediate function of the mitochondrion are encoded both in the mitochondrial and the nuclear genome and must be imported to the mitochondrion, shown in Fig.3 which supports Margulis hypothesis. Margulis Although many mitochondrial genes have been found in the nucleus, nuclear genes direct the synthesis of only some of the proteins from which they are made, thus cells which lack mitochondria cannot generate them1. This appears to be the result of extensive gene transfer that took p lace after the endosymbiotic event which brought the two cells together. The transfer of essential genes to the host nucleus resulted in the progressive loss of independence after the host acquired the symbiont, resulting in an organelle unable to survive in oxic conditions outside the host3. O Daley proposes that the large transfer of mitochondrial DNA may have been the result of evolutionary pressure to accumulate DNA inside the nucleus, due to increased genetic variation 17 18.The High rate transfer of DNA between the nucleus and mitochondria demonstrates that the incorporation of the mitochondrial genome into the eukaryotic cell was vital in defining the eukaryotic genome18. An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc., usually as some form of binary object. The name of referred object is ch14f62.jpg. Fig 3: Transfer of nuclear precursor proteins from the nucleus to the mitochondrion and subsequent production of mitochondrial protein. Red arrows indicate the site of action of a specific inhibitor of either nuclear or mitochondrial protein synthesis, discussed in more detail later in of this essay. From Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and James D. Watson (1994) Molecular Biology of the Cell. 3rd edition, Garland Publishing Inc., New York. Lipid membranes Possibly the most convincing evidence of the extracellular origin of mitochondria is the similarity between the inner mitochondrial membrane and the membrane possessed by bacteria. Mitochondria are surrounded by two phospolipid membranes, and while the outer membrane resembles the eukaryotic membranes, including the membranes of other cellular organelles such as that of the nucleus and endoplasmic rectilium, the innermost membrane is chemically distinct to those found elsewhere in the eukaryotic cell6. Furthermore, Microscopic observation has enabled the comparison of cristae, invaginations of the inner mitochondrial membrane, shown in Fig.4, to bacterial mesosomes, shown in Fig.5. Both structures increase the surface area of their respective membranes and provide a site for the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Margulis has suggested that the similarity between mitochondrial cristae and the mesosomes possessed by many species of Bacteria (Fig. 5) also alludes to the extracellula r origin of mitochondria3. Consistent with the endosymbiotic theory, it has been reasoned that the inner membrane once belonged to the bacterial symbiont, and that the outer membrane was a remnant of the phagocytic vacuole in which the symbiont was engulfed by the host cell, resulting in the development of cristae from mesosomes9. Left: Fig.1: Structure of an idealised mitochondrion as compared to an electron micrograph. Illustrates the double membrane structure and the infoldings of the inner membrane known as cristae on which oxidative phosphorylation occurs. Adapted from: Dr Jay Pitocchelli, Saint Anslem College (2001) Lecture Notes for Cell Biology. Available: http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/ jpitocch/genbio/mitochondrion.JPG [accessed 27/04/10] Right: Fig. 5 : Electron micrograph of thin section of T.dentrificans showing inverted Y form of simple mesosome-like body. From: J W Greenawalt and T L Whiteside (Dec 1975). Mesosomes: membranous bacterial organelles. Bacteriological Review. 39(4): 405-463. The inner mitochondria and bacterial membranes also share many biochemical features. Table 2 illustrates the observations made by Parsons, that the outer mitochondrial membrane is more similar in density and lipid composition to that of the endoplasmic reticulum of Serratia than of the inner mitochondrial membrane3 19. It has also been noted that ÃŽÂ ²-barrel transmembrane proteins are exclusively found in the bacterial membranes and in the outer membrane of mitochondria, and that the amino acid sequences of these proteins show high similarity6. Additionally, LACTB, a protein that derives from bacterial penicillin-binding protein of peptidoglycan, has been found in the intermembrane space of eukaryotic mitochondria20. While mitochondria lack peptidoglycan, the presence of a vestigial peptidoglycan-forming protein provided further evidence that mitochondria are descended from bacteria. Table 2: Comparison of structural features and lipid composition of inner and outer Mitochondrial membranes and ER of Serratia. Adapted from D.F. Parsons (1867) Ultrastructural and molecular aspects of cell membranes. Proceeings of the Seventh Canadian Cancer Research Conference 7:193-246. The nature of the mitochondrial respiratory system raises another significant line of evidence supporting the endosymbiotic theory. The production of energy via the electron transport chain by mitochondria is associated only with the inner membrane, as in prokaryotes, and does not occur in the outer membrane, as evidenced by the difference in electron transport protein content in the mitochondrial membranes, shown in Table 29. Additionally, the membrane potential across the inner membrane that is necessary for the production of ATP is not found in the outer membrane of the mitochondrion or in eukaryotic membranes. Table 3 also demonstrates that that bacteria such as P. denitrificans and mitochondria share many respiratory features, such as the sensitivity of the oxidative chain to antimycin, which disrupts proton gradient formation across the membrane. Furthermore, the electron-transport chains of bacteria and mitochondria both contain a membrane-bound enzyme complex that accepts ele ctrons solely from ubiquinone-10 quinine carrier3. Taken together, this evidence supports the theory that the outer membrane of mitochondria was formed from the vesicular membrane during an endosymbiotic event and the inner membrane formed from the prokaryote engulfed2. Table 3: Mitochondrial features of Paracoccus denitrificans Illustrates the similarities of the respiratory system of mitochondria to the systems of Paracoccus , that are also found in many other bacteria. These strikingly similar respiratory features indicate that microbes such as P. denitrificans may be the ancestors of mitochondria. Many of these features are found in other bacteria. After Whateley (1977) Adapted from Lynn Margulis. Symbiosis in Cell Evolution (1981) W.H.Freeman Co Ltd. Respiratory Chain Succinate and NADH dehydrogenases Ubiquinone-10 is the sole quinine Cytochromes a and a3 act as oxidase Sensitive to low concentrations of antimycin Oxidative Phosphorylation Respiratory control is released by ADP or by uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation ATPase has tightly bound nucleotise exchangeable on energization Membrane Phospholipids Phosphotidylcholine is the main constituent All fatty acids are straight-chain and monounsaturated Mitochondrial division The way in which mitochondria divide also provides evidence for their extracellular origin. It has been shown that these organelles multiply semi-autonomously, not through mitosis as eukaryotic cells are, but rather through a process similar to binary fission of pre-existing organelles21. Mitochondria been found to possess dynamin proteins, mechanochemical GTPases, that are related to the FtsZ, filamentous temperature sensitive, proteins found in bacteria. Bacterial FtsZ2 proteins interact to form a divisome ring complex that from a division furrow from outside, a similar mechanism has been observed by the Dnm1 protein of mitochondria, where the proteins constrict the membrane from the outside, illustrated in Fig. 6. Furthermore, evidence of FtsZ proteins have been found in the mitochondria of the alga Mallomonas splendens that are proteins closely related to those of ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacteria. The FtsZ protein is located in patches on the mitochondrial membrane, near the centre or at the ends of mitochondria, similar to the location of Dnm1. The similarities in the molecules involved in initiating bacterial and organelle division further emphasise the evolutionary ties that these organelles have to bacteria.9 22 23 Fig. 6: A model of the mechanism of mitochondrial division: Dynamins are targeted to their site of action by other proteins. After modification by GTP, Dynamins from rings that tighten around the site of division and constrict to cut the mitochondrion into two. This mecahism parrales that of FtsZ, the tubulin protein of bacteria. Adapted from: Suzanne Hoppins, Laura Lackner, and Jodi Nunnari (2007) The Machines that Divide and Fuse Mitochondria. Annual Review of Biochemistry Vol. 76: 751-780 Ribosomal Similarities The protein-synthesising machinery of mitochondria shares more similarities with bacteria than that of the eukaryote cytoplasm. For example, the initiating amino acid in the transcripts of bacteria and mitochondria is N-formylmethionine, whereas protein synthesis in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells begins with methionine. The structure of the mitochondrial ribosomes also differs from those found in the eukaryotic cytoplasm, in that they are more similar in size and share the same subunit structure, described in Table.1 3 9. The sequences of 16S ribosomal RNAs are closer to certain aerobic eubacteria than many other bacteria are, for example, Wolters and Erdmann have confirmed, by phylogenetic analyses, that the primary and secondary structure of 5S and 16S rRNA of angiosperm mitochondria share specific signatures with a particular type of purple bacteria, the rhodobacteria25. Conversely, mitochondria show no homologies in these traits with the eukaryotic cell cytoplasm3. These similar ities appear to confirm the phylogenetic relationship of these organisms and the organelles. Similarities between the ribosomes of bacteria and mitochondria are further evidenced by the action of a number of antibiotics that affect only bacterial, mitochondrion ribosomes protein-synthesising machinery. Fig. 3, above, demonstrates specific inhibitors of protein synthesis. These similarities the action of antibiotics between three types of ribosomes are illustrated in Table 4 3. For example, neomycin and streptomycin act by binding the 30S subunit of mitochondria and bacteria and inhibiting protein chain initiation, while chloramphenicol blocks the attachment of amino acid to tRNA9. None of these chemicals interfere with protein synthesis in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotes. Conversely, cyclohexamide and anisomycin affect only the protein synthetic machinery of eukaryotic cells, and have no inhibitory effects on mitochondria or on bacteria. Another example, rifampicin, inhibits the RNA polymerase of bacteria and mitochondria, but has no such effect on eukaryotic nuclear RNA pol ymerase. It is notable that each antibiotic, except for Puromycin, affects both mitochondrial and bacterial or cytoplasmic ribosomes, and this would appear to suggest a relationship between the protein synthesising machinery of mitochondria and that of prokaryotic bacteria from which they were thought to have originated3. Experimental Evidence Laboratory experiments have been conducted to confirm the establishment of endosymbioses in several organisms. Kwang Jeon of the University of Tennessee has demonstrated that, under laboratory conditions, it is possible to observe the establishment of a stable amoeba-bacteria symbiosis. After over 20 years of culture, a strain of Amoeba proteus became infected with a large number of bacteria. These became integrated as necessary cell components after initially being pathogenic to the host cells26. The amoebas dependence on the endosymbiotic bacteria was also demonstrated by removing the nucleus of an infected cell and placing it into another cell that had previously had its nucleus removed. Treatment with chloramphenicol also killed the majority of the endosymbiotic bacteria, which rendered the amoebae unable to survive. Thus, Jeon had proven that the host nucleus had become dependent on the symbionts 3, 27. Finally, Okamoto and Inouye have shown that some organisms can take opportunistic advantage of a similar process to endosymbiosis, by observation of a heterotrophic protist that engulfed a unicellular green alga and used the products of its photosynthesis. Inside the host cell, the alga underwent morphological changes, including the loss of flagella and cytoskeleton. The heterotrophic host switched its source of nutrition and became an autotroph, and became capable of phototaxis, the ability to move towards light. (Kimball, 2007) The acquisition of the alga by the protist and subsequent changes in both cells are believed to represent the early stages of a secondary endosymbiosis in process, and the conclusions of both experiments illustrate the possibility of secondary endosymbiosis occurring in modern cells in a similar way in which the symbionts from which mitochondria are descended were acquired28. Conclusion Based upon the large body of available evidence contributed by scientists in the years since the endosymbiotic hypothesis was first proposed, including the conclusions of various experiments and the sequence data of nucleic acids and proteins, I have concluded that modern eukaryotic cells arose by a stable incorporation of prokaryotic endosymbionts. This dramatic change was then the driving force behind the evolution of new species and eventually more complex organisms4. However, the question of which order eukaryotes came to possess nuclei and respiratory organelles is still the subject of much debate, and the fact that some genes remain encoded in the mitochondria rather than being completely transferred to the nucleus has not been accounted for16. Despite these uncertainties, the endosymbiotic theory remains the most probable explanation for the similarities between mitochondria and Bacteria, and the large disparity between Bacteria and eukaryotes. The next steps in the developmen t of this theory may require new methods of reconstructing events that occurred billions of years ago, in order to answer one of the greatest uncertainties in evolutionary biology, regarding the origin of the eukaryotes.

Lord Of The Flies Essay :: essays research papers

The book, Lord of the Flys, can be interpreted in many different ways. Depending on the point of view of the reader, William Golding has opinions on man and society. Golding is inaccurate for making the assumption that all people are born with evil within them and are not affected by their surroundings. In the book, the author uses a being called â€Å"the beast† to simulate the fear and evil people have inside. The boys on the island apparently see a beast in the forest, which scares them and gives them nightmares. Phil says at a meeting, â€Å"Last night I had a dream, a horrid dream, fighting with things. I was outside the shelter by myself, fighting with things, those twisty things in the trees.† Phil had heard things about he beast from other boys, which caused him to have the nightmare. He is a young boy, on an island with no supervision and is afraid of what’s is happening to him and where he is. Without thoughts of the beast, provoked from the other boys, Phil would never have experienced this nightmare. Not only the thoughts that the boys think affect them, but the things they see cause them to have evil intentions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Golding used a pig’s head on a stick called â€Å" the lord of the flys â€Å" as another animation to substitute the thoughts of evil and fear within the boys. Seeing the head causes Simon to have hallucinations of this head talking to him. The Lord of the Flys says â€Å"   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   .† After hearing this, Simon returns to the other boys, who are rallying around a fire, indulged in a victorious chant, and is soon trampled to death by the preoccupied boys. Being away from civilization has driven the boys to near delirium and as any person does, they easily got wrapped up in their success. These kids are too young and inexperienced to be alone in the world without any kind of

Marketing Umpqua Bank

For those and women in business like attire. They don't expect people to be sitting around drinking coffee and chatting. This may cause them to feel uncomfortable and not want to do business with the bank. For young people this would be a very attractive environment. They are not used to the days of old; they may like the informal setting and bring in their friends. This area that I have discussed would be part of the subculture too. Young people generally do not like regimen, rules and regulations, and while these remain intact at Umps, they are semi-hidden in this informal appealing environment.Social class would also be a major influence on who â€Å"shops† at Umps. Although in an informal setting that makes people feel welcome, some customers may feel that they are out of their own class and again feel uncomfortable. Another issue that I see, is that I did not see in the video reference to doing business with ethnic groups such as Hispanics. On the website I did not see a link that would take you to a Spanish page. I was not sure when I viewed the videos on the Umps Bank website on what does local look like that I understood the cartoonist message.Bank like you live: the way we see it Premise was better understood as â€Å"We've never thought of ourselves as being simply a bank. We're really more like knowledgeable neighbors, the kind you invite over for a cup of coffee, seek advice from and chat over the fence. And we're here to help you bank like you live† (Umps. Com). As a consumer of Umps Bank the need recognition is an important factor. It may be as simple as having somewhere to go when you are hungry and tired. Umps Bank offers its guests free coffee and a place to relax and distress.People tell stories about their experience and having a good experience where you bank is a good way to get you coming back. Umps knows that you will likely tell others, and getting referrals from this personal source of information is what that are hoping f or. There are banks and there are banks, and Umps is certainly very unique in this regard. I do not know of any other bank that is emulating Umps, so seeking an alternative may be quite difficult. The Umps Bank website is full of information for the consumer.Whether or not the customer makes a decision to â€Å"purchase† or do business with the bank entirely depends on their experience. â€Å"Generally, the consumers purchase 181). Other peoples experience (such as friends) may influence the purchasing session. If they have had a good experience of the bank the chances are that they will be able to make a decision based on that. After the purchase we have to look at the relationship that develops between the customer and the bank (Postprocessor Behavior Marketing an Introduction peg. 181).If good follow up is made by the bank to the customer, then generally the customer will be happy with his decision to â€Å"purchase†. However the opposite is also true. Lack of foll ow up or seemed unfriendliness may cause the customer to have second thoughts. This negative impact may give rise to complaints and potentially cause mage to the reputation of the bank. Service characteristics include intangibility, inseparability, variability and permissibility. Umps Bank sets itself aside from other banks by providing customers with a sense of quality, not something that can be generally perceived by looking, but rather something that can be felt.The focus of Umps is to have its employees trained in all aspects of the Job and to the same high standards, so that there is no real variability in their standards of service to the customer. The same is true regarding service inseparability. Due to the fact that the customer is present hen the banks services are provided the provider-customer interaction both affect the service outcome. (Marketing: An Introduction peg 250). There may be special offers available for only a limited time which means that when the time has gone the offer is no longer available.This is known as service permissibility. Just how perishable a product or service is depends on how successful it is in its first offering and Just how much demand there is for the product or service being offered. A service provider could either lengthen the shelf life of the product or service if it proves popular, or they may shorten its life if it doesn't draw many customers. The service profit chain comprises of five links. These are Internal service quality, Satisfied and productive service employees, Greater service value, Satisfied and loyal customers and Healthy service profits and growth. Marketing: An Introduction peg 251). The following is part extract and part my own words from Kettle 13th Edition â€Å"Umps Bank† Umps Bank provides very high standards of customer service, from when the customer enters to when they leave. They are always greeted with a smile and a warm welcome. If they are actually a customer then they will b e greeted by name. After the customer's transaction is complete they get a piece of Umps chocolate. Can sit and drink coffee and if they have their laptop. Use the available free wife.Umps bank wants you to stay. Every employee receives six weeks of off-site training about the banks culture and beliefs and about how the bank operates differently. Placing the employee with the customer rather than them sitting behind a desk makes the customer feel even more welcome. To enjoy what you do as an employee is more important than Just what you do. The design of the bank, even though it looks more like a hotel lobby than a bank, didn't actually cost them anymore Han if they had invested in a more traditional setting.